Best practices for the preparation and evaluation of lithium battery cells | Communication Equipment

Introduction

Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) are well recognized and applied in various consumer electronics applications, such as mobile devices (eg, computers, smart phones, mobile devices, etc.), electrical appliances, as well as health-care devices1. Due to the emerging demand for electrified transportation market, the development of more sophisticated batteries with high energy density and low loss is also highly demanded2,3,4,5,6. In addition to the study and development of traditional LIBs based on the intercalation of lithium (Li) between the graphite anode and the lithium transition metal oxide cathode, the Li metal battery system, where the lithium metal anode is used against the lithium metal oxide or another cathode containing Li as well. drew a lot of attention due to their potential and higher energy density or cheaper material prices compared to traditional systems5. Since Li-ion and Li-metal batteries use Li containing active materials and rely on the redox chemistry associated with Li ions, we prefer the term “lithium batteries” (LBs) to refer to both systems in this context.

In recent decades, all the main components of LBs, including active ingredients, binding agents, conductive additives, electrolytes, and membranes, have been thoroughly investigated and documented by a number of published research results7,8,9,10,11,12,13. In addition to chemical level and physical characterization, electrochemical cells should be prepared and tested to further investigate the performance of the components. Ideally, cell line-made commercial production, no problem pouch, cylindrical, or prismatic format, providing better reproducible results6. However, most research labs still use small format cells, such as coin cells, for evaluation due to resource and cost limitations14,15. Although some institutes use single-layer or small size multi-layer pouch cell format to evaluate, most of their samples are still “manually made” starting from active ingredient powder (in contrast to automatic- or semi-automatic-manufacturing line-made). . Until now, the research community began to pay attention to the reliability of cell fabrication, as further evaluation is highly dependent on the quality and consistency of the cells obtained. For coin format cells, several key factors have been identified throughout the whole cell fabrication process that have many effects on the final cell performance14,15,16,17,18,19,20. Unfortunately, studies on key factors for pouch format cell preparation and evaluation are still rare21.

In this article, the key factors that affect the final cell performance throughout the fabrication process are identified and discussed for coin format and pouch format, respectively. Some important parameters that have a significant effect on these factors are also introduced and discussed. Finally, some expectations in the systematic study of the cell fabrication process, as well as the need for a standard protocol for cell manufacturing and testing are also presented. We hope that the discussion of these key factors and important parameters will provide general guidelines on reliable and repeatable cell fabrication and testing to the battery research community.

Electrode preparation

The electrode is the most important component in the LB cell. The quality of the electrode will affect the final cell performance. Back in 2011, Mark et al published a general method for the preparation of LIBs electrodes using NMC111 cathode as an example, which is a reference for PVDF map application18. In a recent publication, Jiangtao et al. provided an example of graphite anode preparation, which uses water based carboxymethyl cellulose binder15. (Fig. 1.) In both examples, a good mixture of slurry is emphasized with the setting of mixing equipment in accordance with time control, as the uniformity of slurry is one of the key factors that will affect the performance of the final cell. To reduce agglomeration, pre-grinding and sieving solid powders (active ingredients and conductive additives) is highly recommended before wet mixing with the binder solution. In addition, the solid content should be consistent among different batches for better quality control.

a Slurry Mixing step; b Cooling of slurry after mixing; c porosity control in the calendar process; d electrode alignment during full cell fabrication; e N/P ratio control for full cells; f Wetting the electrolyte in the electrode. (Reprint with permission from ref. 15. Copyright 2021 Cell press).

The uniformity of the electrode thickness, especially with thick electrode coating, is a critical factor consequential effect of the final cell performance22,23. Each manufacturer has its own specifications and requirements on the variation of the thickness of the electrode coating, which is usually in several percentages. However, most research labs still rely on hand tools or small motorized coating equipment to spread the slurry across the foil for small area coating. In order to achieve better coating quality, several parameters will be addressed for lab scale coating operations. One of the important parameters is the coating speed. Depending on the viscosity of the slurry, the spreading rate can affect the thickness of the final coating even with the same gap setting. Considering the method of feeding the slurry to the coating blade, as well as the evaporation rate of the solvent, the thickness of the coating may have some variations in both the beginning and end areas. However, a steady coating speed will provide relatively uniform coating thickness along the coating direction. On the other hand, the coating blade gap must be carefully calibrated before use because it will affect the thickness variation along the coating width.

Dryness of other components

The dryness of all components such as the electrolyte and separator membrane, is also critical to cell performance. It is well known that uncontrolled moisture content in batteries can lead to unstable active material structures, gas evolution, as well as other safety problems8,24,25. Therefore, periodically checking the moisture content, as well as maintaining the dryness of organic solvents and Li salts is necessary. For example, some ether-based solvents are highly hygroscopic due to the formation of hydrogen bonds with water. Even being stored in the Ar glovebox, the moisture content will increase, especially with frequent use, the container is less insulated, and the storage time is long. In most cases, activated A4 molecular sieves will help maintain solvent dryness with low initial moisture levels (~10-20 ppm). Unlike organic solvents, Li salts need to be treated carefully. For example, LiTFSI can be re-dried under vacuum conditions (for example, drying on Schlenk-lines), while LiPF6 does not have easy drying or recovering methods in general lab conditions. For prepared electrolytes, even commercial electrolytes, checking the purity and moisture content periodically by Karl Fischer titration and NMR is highly recommended26,27, because A4 molecular sieves cannot be used due to ion exchange.

The drying of the separator before use is also highly recommended considering its highly porous nature. The common method for drying the separator is to use a low temperature (for example, <60 °C) vacuum process with controlled time to prevent thermal deformation. In recent years, novel types of separators with new polymer components, or special surface layers, have been introduced to the battery area. For the new separators, the use of suggested drying conditions from the manufacturer or seller is highly recommended.

Coin cell parts, such as cathode and anode cases, spacers, and springs must be thoroughly cleaned before drying. These metal parts, depending on the manufacturer’s process control, may have metal and organic residues. Acetone/alcohol and water DI rinse with the help of an ultrasonic bath will help with removing their residue before further drying. Other cell component parts, such as pouch material and tabs/cassettes, must also be dried prior to each batch of cell manufacture to prevent the accumulation of moisture content.

Coin format cell preparation

Coin cell format is the dominant format used in battery research due to its simple configuration, easy preparation, and relatively low material cost. There are several key parameters that have been identified that will affect the quality of cell preparation and data repeatability14,15. Cathode and anode alignment is critical for long cycle stability28. Ideally, the area of ​​cathode and anode should be equal to 100% overlap14. However, this design is always electrode misalignment that leads to direct deposition of Li and therefore inconsistent results. Therefore, the anode area should be slightly larger than the cathode, which helps with better alignment15. This oversizing design is also used in commercial large format cells. Another key factor is the amount of electrolyte used in coin cell assembling. In theory, the electrolyte should fill all the holes in the electrode and the separator membrane. A systematic study of NMC/graphite cell full suggested the appropriate excess of electrolyte brings better cell capacity20. To obtain better data reproducibility from different experimental batches, the same amount of electrolyte should be used in all cell preparations. On the other hand, using a lot of excess electrolyte should be cautious because the total amount in each cell may vary, since the electrolyte may be “squeezed” out during crimping.

Besides the above factors that are carefully studied, the pressure applied on the internal parts including the electrode and separator is also a critical factor that affects the final cell performance. Figure 2 shows a cross-section diagram of a typical coin cell. Unlike the pouch format cell where pressure is applied mainly from an external source, coin cell pressure is applied internally on the electrode mainly from spring compression. Unfortunately, no studies have been reported on internally applied pressure. The variety of spring designs and textures makes it difficult to obtain a basic pressure profile. As the internal height of the cell is fixed (for example, ~ 3 mm for 2032 type of coin cell), the spring compression is determined by the total thickness of other components, and the choice of spacer thickness. Therefore, when using the same electrode thickness in different batches, the same spacer thickness should be used in order to obtain consistent spring compression, which is linked to the internal applied pressure. Meanwhile, when the thickness of the electrode coating or mass loading changes, or the Li counter electrode thickness changes, the corresponding adjustment in the thickness of the spacer needs to provide a reasonable closed internal pressure condition.

Schematic cross-section of coin-format cells with different internal pressures, assuming all components are the same except for different spacer thicknesses. a high internal pressure with large spring compression due to the thick spacer and the result is a small spring gap; b Lower internal pressure and smaller spring compression due to thinner spacers and resulting in larger gaps.

Besides the internal applied pressure, the external pressure will also be applied by the crimping process. Crimping pressure varies from a few hundred to a thousand psi, depending on the design of the tool and the setting. Although the pressure reading does not mean the final pressure applied to the internal component, it still affects the internal component with additional pressure during the crimping process. For example, setting too much pressure-crimping can lead to split deformation, thus leading to internal shorting. Unfortunately, it is difficult to have a standard protocol for crimping pressure regulation, as the mechanics and design of crimping tools vary. However, consistent settings including appropriate pressure settings and holding time can greatly reduce the rate of cell failure and largely improve the reproducibility of coin cell data.

As discussed in the previous section, most of the manual-making process of coin format cells has a large system deviation. For such systems, statistical analysis of data with sufficient sample cell numbers for each batch may be more appropriate and meaningful. Brandon et al. published a systematic study using 30-cell test20. The authors suggest a smaller sample set could be used to provide a reasonable spread of data. Since this area is more towards mathematical statistics that is beyond the scope of this article, we will not have further discussion. However, having enough sample sets for each batch (eg, 3-10 cells per batch) should be encouraged in lab-scale research when using coin-format cells.

Pouch format cell preparation

In recent years, single-layer and small multi-layer pouch format cells (usually <3 Ah) pouches were introduced in advanced LB research because they are considered more closed for their commercial counterparts than coin cell formats21,29,30. However, as most of the lab-scale small pouch format cells are prepared manually, the quality and reproducibility of data are also highly affected by any errors during operation, similar to coin format cells. The process of making general pouch cells includes cutting/trimming electrodes, stacking electrodes, tab welding, pouch sealing, electrolyte injection, formation, and final degassing and resealing. The process of making cell bags contains more operating steps than cell-making coins, thus introducing more system and human error.

Regardless of the fabrication process, pouch format cells share the same key factors that link to final cell performance. For example, the alignment of electrodes is still very critical no matter in single-layer or multi-layer cells. In most lab-scale setups, the anode is about 1–2 mm larger than the cathode on each side, so the tolerance for misalignment is very small. In addition to the initial placement of the electrode, precautions on adjusting the alignment of the electrode must be carried out at the bottom of the winding separator, tab welding, and pouch sealing process. In the stacking process, the electrode can be easily moved during the electrode winding process due to static electricity. In the tab welding process, misalignment will occur due to the distortion of the tab area due to the pressure from the welder’s head. Similar pressure-induced misalignment will happen in the sealing pouch as well, especially the edge with the tab. In most cases, some customized container or jig that can apply some pressure and geometrically confines the jelly roll (electrode / stack separator) and the cell will help a lot with the alignment.

Moreover, the electrolyte wetting time, especially for cells using thick coated electrodes, must be controlled to allow complete diffusion of the electrolyte. In battery industrial plants, electrolyte injection and wet down are carefully controlled by proper engineering design in processing and equipment. Many critical factors are considered in the overall design, such as electrolyte viscosity, bulk diffusion rate, vapor pressure, and evaporation rate. In most research lab situations, providing long enough soaking time and vacuum conditions may be a more practical solution. Although there is no evidence supported by published data or results suggesting vacuum conditions can help increase the speed of electrolyte wetting, vacuum-sealed bags can prevent the evaporation of electrolyte and external moisture / impurity during the wetting process.

Control of the amount of electrolyte is another factor for overall cell performance. Bag format cells have less “dead” space than coin format cells. However, how much “dead” or free space the pouch format cell depends on the design of the cell. In general, single-layer pouch cells always have more free space than multi-layer designs (e.g., > 5 layers), while small-sized cells (e.g., 0.5 Ah) have more free space than large-sized cells (e.g., 30 Ah). For research purposes, to obtain reproducible results in pouch format cells, the amount of electrolyte must be accurately controlled and measured. In order to obtain an accurate amount of electrolyte, several separate measurements are required before and after the formation / resealing process, because the electrolyte will be consumed during the formation and partially removed with the resealing of the pouch.

The dryness factor, which was generally discussed in the above section, needs to be re-emphasized for pouch format cells. Considering the surface area of ​​the electrode and separator is much larger, as well as the fabrication time is longer than the coin cell, the pouch cell components can absorb more moisture and impurities during fabrication, depending on the operating conditions. Therefore, the immediate use of pre-dried components and short operation time is highly recommended to reduce the impact of moisture.

Pouch format cell testing

Unlike coin-format cells, the pressure applied to the internal components in a pouch cell comes from the vacuum inside the pouch and the external stacking pressure. Some previous reports suggest external stacking pressure has an effect on the cell impedance and current distribution, thus affecting the cycling performance in LIBs. For Li-metal batteries, the effect of external stacking pressure is even greater due to the pressure-sensitive nature of Li deposition conditions31,32. Therefore, the staking pressure that is usually provided by the cell fixture is another critical factor for cell performance and data reproducibility. Most mobile devices are customized with different designs for pressure control, as there are no commercially available products with a universal design. As fig. 3 shows, common cell fixtures either use the design of two plates with sandwiched cells in between or use the design of three plates with a “floating” board for better pressure distribution and control. Both designs use bolts located in the corners to help fix the plate position. In some cases, the pressure is controlled by loading a certain mass on the upper plate. while the majority of these cell fixtures rely on the compression of the spring in the bolts, which can be estimated by Hook’s law29. These cell fixtures with spring loading can also be used in small pouch cells (ie, < 5 Ah). However, two parameters must be taken into account in the manufacture and use of such devices – the texture of the plate and the calibration of the spring compression. Based on our experience, metals such as aluminum alloy or stainless steel texture can provide better pressure distribution. In contrast, the texture of plastic or fiberglass is more flexible, which bends when applying high pressure in the corners. Besides the texture of the plate, the spring must also be carefully selected and calibrated. If necessary, multi-point pressure calibration at different locations (as in Fig . 4) is recommended to achieve better pressure distribution in addition to spring compression control. In fact, in practical terms, spring compression by measuring the gap of the plate, or directly from the measurement of the length of the spring, cannot provide accurate pressure determination due to measurement errors, the quality of the spring, the texture of the plate, and the friction between the bolt and the plate hole. . Therefore, a multi-point pressure check with a flat pressure sensor will further help with the accuracy of pressure control with an external pressure supply, regardless of the type of spring or load cell.

Two-plate design with battery cells placed in the middle between the plates; b Three-plate design with the battery cell placed in the middle between the two bottom plates.

cross-section side view of the cell fixture and cells, with the suggested calibration location shown in the red circle; b bottom view of cell and cell fixture (the bottom plate is not shown for a clear view) with the proposed calibration location shown in the red circle.

When testing LB cells, a special thermal chamber with accurate temperature control is required to provide a stable test environment. In initial studies, many researchers use “room temperature” for initial screening and study work. Considering the battery cycle is a long-term test, environmental temperature fluctuations will affect overall cell performance, especially with temperature-sensitive systems that use coin-format cells that have rapid heat exchange with the environment. For pouch format cells, heat exchange is slower with cell fixtures. Therefore, a certain rest time in the thermal chamber is necessary to stabilize the temperature of the cell.

Outlook

The research community has realized the critical importance of reliable cell fabrication to the study of valuable and reproducible batteries. As a good foundation for all areas of battery research, cell fabrication deserves more attention from researchers. As we discussed in this article, there are many factors that greatly affect the reproducibility of cell fabrication. Some of them, such as the control of electrode layer thickness, component dryness, or electrode alignment, are in the engineering control strategy in the manufacturing definition. There is a scientific and engineering meaning behind each parameter determination. However, those studies can be time-consuming, depending on experience/facilities, and are not always in line with academic research and learning interests. Therefore, systematic research on key parameters that affect cell quality and performance is still rare, compared to many publications on materials or electrochemical studies in the area of ​​battery research.

On the one hand, we hope that more research teams can engage in research and study in this area to help provide strong evidence and analysis that will benefit the battery research community. On the other hand, we also hope that this article can raise researchers’ attention to this factor and further understand the physical and chemical parameters that are linked to the factor, thus, find appropriate processes, methods, or solutions to achieve reproducible and reliable results. based on working conditions and facility capabilities. Some of these factors can be linked to certain physical parameters that can be measured and monitored. For example, the uniformity of electrode control can be linked to slurry viscosity and particle size distribution, which can be measured by viscometer / rheometer, and particle analyzer, respectively. In electrolyte preparation, the water content should always be monitored either by Karl-Fisher titration or NMR. For those physical parameters, researchers can choose appropriate laboratory-scale characterization tools and equipment. Here we even suggest that researchers add the characterization data to their publications, which not only provides a better understanding of the properties of materials and details of the process, but also provides references for further study.

In addition, when researchers investigate novel materials or components, the choice of appropriate cell formats and cell designs targeting different applications should also be considered. To eliminate errors that can be caused by certain processes or components is also an effective way to improve reproducibility and reliability. For example, in some studies, single-layer pouch format cells with a very small electrode area may not show better data consistency than coin format cells and error analysis, due to the more complicated fabrication process, as well as difficult pressure control.

In order to further improve the reproducibility of cell fabrication in battery studies, research groups and institutes should try to involve more automatic- or semi-automatic-devices in the process of cell fabrication to largely eliminate system errors by manual operation processes. On the other hand, it can be a question and a challenge for equipment manufacturers to make suitable lab-scale instruments to meet technical requirements and budget limits. In addition, in some studies, using electrodes from commercial sources, or any facilities that are capable (eg, electrode coating of large quantities, pilot level equipment and facilities) can help reduce a lot of effort while achieving better consistency in the electrolyte, separator, or coating screening special surface and evaluation, comparing and making electrodes manually at home.

In this perspective article, we discuss some key factors in LBs cell preparation and evaluation. We hope this article can help not only draw attention from the battery research community about the impact of those factors and parameters on the reproducibility and reliability of the final results but also provide some preliminary solutions and thoughts to answer the question. Aside from the expanded study effort, we also hope that there will be further discussion on the comprehensive cell preparation and evaluation protocol to provide an operating standard and a comparison baseline for future battery research and development. All these efforts can help to bridge the gap between basic study and practical application of LBs technology.

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